Ingliz fonologiyasi – English phonology

Fortlarning allofonlari / p, t, tʃ, k / quyidagilarni o’z ichiga oladi:

• intilgan [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] ular a boshlanishida sodir bo’lganda ta’kidladi kabi, hece potato. Quyidagi suyuqlikni o’z ichiga olgan klasterlarda aspiratsiya odatda ushbu suyuqlikning ajralishi sifatida namoyon bo’ladi. Ushbu tovushlar asspiratsiyalanmagan [p, t, k] keyin / s / ichida bo’lgani kabi bir xil hece ichida stan, span, svanva hecelerin oxirida, xuddi bo’lgani kabi mat, xarita, Mac. [22] Ovozsiz fritivlar doimo ilhomlanmaydi, ammo bu erda istisno qilinadigan istisno, Uelsning ingliz tilida so’zlashadigan joylari bo’lib, u erda ular tez-tez intilishadi. [23]
• Ingliz tilining ko’plab aksanlarida fortis to’xtaydi / p, t, k, tʃ / bor glotalizatsiya qilingan ba’zi lavozimlarda. Bu og’iz orqali yopilishidan oldin “to’xtab turish” yoki “qorishtiruvchi armatura” yoki “to’xtab turish” o’rnini bosuvchi vosita sifatida eshitilishi mumkin. [ʔ] og’iz orqali to’xtatish uchun (glottalni almashtirish). / tʃ / faqat oldindan glotallashtirilishi mumkin. Pre-glottalizatsiya odatda ingliz va amerika ingliz tillarida fortis undosh fonemasidan keyin boshqa undosh kelganda yoki undosh so’nggi holatga kelganda yuz beradi. Shunday qilib futbol va ushlash tez-tez talaffuz qilinadi [ˈFʊʔtbɔːl] va [ˈKæʔtʃɪŋ] navbati bilan. Glotalni almashtirish ko’pincha yangi berilgan holatlarda sodir bo’ladi, shuning uchun futbol tez-tez talaffuz qilinadi [ˈFʊʔbɔːl] . Bundan tashqari, qachon ingliz ingliz tilida glottal almashtirish tobora keng tarqalgan / t / oldingi unli ta’kidlangan bo’lsa, unlilar orasida paydo bo’ladi; shunday qilib yaxshiroq ko’pincha yosh ma’ruzachilar tomonidan shunday talaffuz qilinadi [ˈBeʔə] . [24] Bunday t-glotallashtirish shuningdek, Britaniyaning ko’plab mintaqaviy aksanlarida, shu jumladan Kokni, bu erda so’zlarning oxirida ham bo’lishi mumkin va qaerda / p / va / k / ba’zida xuddi shunday munosabatda bo’lishadi. [25]

• Mayli eshitiladigan nashr yo’q [p̚, b̚, t̚, d̚, k̚, ɡ̚] so’zning yakuniy holatida. [26][27] Ushbu allofonlar Shimoliy Amerikada Buyuk Britaniyaga qaraganda tez-tez uchraydi. [26]
• Doimo boshqa plosiv yoki affrikat oldida “niqobli bo’shatish” qiling (xuddi shunday) rubbtahrir [ˈRʌˑb̚d̥] ), ya’ni birinchi bekatni chiqarish ikkinchi to’xtash yopilgandan so’ng amalga oshiriladi. Bu quyidagi to’xtash holatida ham amal qiladi gomorganik kabi (xuddi shu joyda ifodalangan) gap pqatlam. [28] Buning muhim istisnosi Uels ingliz tili, odatda bu muhitda to’xtash joylari bo’shatiladi. [23]
• Afrikalar / tʃ, dʒ / barcha muhitda majburiy fricative relizga ega. [29]

• Kabi ta’kidlangan hecelerdeki Yod-birlashishi, masalan sozlash va qumtepa, ichida bo’ladi Avstraliyalik, Kokni, Estuary English, Hiberno-ingliz (ba’zi ma’ruzachilar), Nyufaundlend ingliz tili, Janubiy Afrika inglizlari va ma’lum darajada Yangi Zelandiya ingliz tili va Shotlandiya inglizchasi (ko’plab ma’ruzachilar). Bu qo’shimcha gomofoniyaga olib kelishi mumkin; masalan; misol uchun, shudring va tufayli bilan bir xil talaffuz qilinadi Yahudiy. [33]
• Kabi ba’zi navlarda Avstraliya ingliz tili, Janubiy Afrika inglizlari va Yangi Zelandiya ingliz tillari – / sj / va / zj / ta’kidlangan hecalarda birlashishi mumkin [ʃ] va [ʒ] navbati bilan. Masalan, avstraliyalik ingliz tilida, taxmin qilmoq talaffuz qilinadi [əˈʃʉMm] ba’zi ma’ruzachilar tomonidan. [34] Bundan tashqari, ba’zi inglizlar, kanadaliklar, amerikaliklar, yangi zelandiyaliklar va avstraliyaliklar so’zlashuvlarni o’zgartirishi mumkin / s / tovush / ʃ / oldin / tr / , [35] ⟨str⟩ klasteriga ega bo’lgan so’z shunga o’xshash strqashshoq talaffuz qilinadi [ːtruːn] . [36]

Unlilar

Ushbu unlilarning talaffuzini ingliz shevalarida kengroq doirada ko’rsatadigan jadval uchun qarang Ingliz lahjalari uchun IPA diagrammasi. Quyidagi jadvallarda ingliz tilining uchta standart navlarining unli fonemalari ko’rsatilgan. Bu erda qabul qilingan talaffuz (RP) uchun ishlatiladigan yozuv tizimi juda standart; boshqalar kamroq. Bu erda berilgan xususiyat tavsiflari (old, yaqin va boshqalar) biroz mavhumlangan; bu unlilarning haqiqiy talaffuzlari biroz aniqroq etkazilgan IPA ishlatiladigan belgilar (qarang. qarang Ovoz ushbu belgilarning ma’nosini ko’rsatadigan jadval uchun; ammo quyidagi jadvallarda keltirilgan fikrlarga ham e’tibor bering).

Talaffuz qilindi [41] [42]

Old		Markaziy		Orqaga
qisqa	uzoq	qisqa	uzoq	qisqa	uzoq
Yoping	ɪ	iː	ʊ	uː [a]	ɔː [a]
O’rta	e	ea	ə	ɜː	ɒ [a]
Ochiq	æ	ʌ [a] [b]	ɑː
Diftonlar	eɪ aɪ ɔɪ aʊ əʊ ɪə ʊə
Triftonlar	( eɪə aɪə ɔɪa aʊə əʊa )

Umumiy Amerika

Old		Markaziy		Orqaga
bo’shashgan	vaqt	bo’shashgan	vaqt	bo’shashgan	vaqt
Yoping	ɪ	men	ʊ	siz
O’rta	ɛ	eɪ [c]	ə	( ɜ ) [d]	oʊ [c]
Ochiq	æ	ʌ [b] [d]	ɑ	( ɔ ) [e]
Diftonlar	aɪ ɔɪ aʊ

Umumiy avstraliyalik

Old		Markaziy		Orqaga
qisqa	uzoq	qisqa	uzoq	qisqa	uzoq
Yoping	ɪ	iː	ʉː [a]	ʊ	oː [a]
O’rta	e	eː	ə	ɜː	ɔ [a]
Ochiq	æ	æː	ɐ [a]	ɐː
Diftonlar	æɪ ɑɪ oɪ æɔ əʉ ɪa (ʊa)

1. ^ abvdefgh Zamonaviy RP unlilar / uː / , / ɔː / , / ɒ / va / ʌ / mos keladigan Avstraliya fonemalariga juda o’xshash / ʉː / , / oː / , / ɔ / va / ɐ / . Ularning orasidagi farq asosan transkripsiyada yotadi (ularning RPda yozilishi ko’proq konservativ).
2. ^ ab Garchi yozuv / ʌ / unlisi uchun ishlatiladi
3. STRUT RP va General American-da haqiqiy talaffuz a ga yaqinroq yaqin ochiladigan markaziy o’rab olinmagan unli [ɐ] . ⟨Belgisi ʌ ⟩ Urf-odatlar sababli (tarixiy jihatdan orqa unli bo’lgan) va u hali ham boshqa navlarda bo’lgani uchun foydalanishda davom etmoqda. [43]
4. ^ ab Garchi yozuv / eɪ oʊ / unlilari uchun ishlatiladi
5. Yuz va
6. ECHKI mos ravishda General American-da ular fonematik monofontlar sifatida tahlil qilinadi va tez-tez transkripsiyalanadi / e o / adabiyotda.
7. ^ ab General Amerika o’rtasida qarshilik yo’q / yr / va / er / ; shuning uchun unlilar yanada / Ɜfɜrder / odatda bir xil segmental sifat bilan amalga oshiriladi [ˈFɚðɚ] . [44] Bu ham qiladi gomofonik sozlar oldinga / ˈFɔrwərd / va Muqaddima / ˈFɔrwɜrd / kabi [ˈFɔɹwɚd] . [44] Shuning uchun, / ɜ / bu umumiy fonemada haqiqiy fonema emas, balki shunchaki boshqacha yozuvidir / ə / ushbu fonema oldin kelganida saqlanadi / r / va ta’kidlangan – boshqa aksanlar bilan taqqoslashni osonlashtirish uchun adabiyotda qabul qilingan konventsiya. [45] Tarixiy jihatdan nima / yr / , kabi shoshiling, shuningdek, talaffuz qilinadi [ɚ] (qarang shoshqaloq – tukli birlashish ), shuning uchun / ʌ / , / ɜ / va / ə / hammasi zararsizlantirildi oldin / r / . [45]
8. ^ Ko’pgina Shimoliy Amerika ma’ruzachilari farq qilmaydi / ɔ / dan / ɑ / va ularni birlashtiring / ɑ / , oldin bundan mustasno / r / (qarang yotoq ushlangan birlashish ).

Ushbu jadvallar orasidagi farqlarni quyidagicha izohlash mumkin:

• General Amerikada RPga mos keladigan fonema yo’q / ɒ / (
• KO’P ,
• KIYIM ) o’rniga ishlatish / ɑ / ichida
• KO’P so’zlar va umuman / ɔ / ichida
• KIYIM so’zlar. Shimoliy Amerikaning bir nechta aksanlarida, ya’ni Sharqiy Yangi Angliya (Boston ), G’arbiy Pensilvaniya (Pitsburg ) va ma’lum darajada Tinch okeanining shimoli-g’arbiy qismi (Sietl, Portlend ) va Sharqiy Kanadalik inglizcha,
• KO’P so’zlarda unli tovush yo’q
• KAFT (the ota–bezovta qil birlashish sodir bo’lmadi), aksincha bilan birlashing
• KIYIM / Fikr . [46][47][48][49]
• RP transkripsiyalarida ⟨ishlatiladi e ⟩ dan ko’ra ⟨ ɛ Historical asosan qulaylik va tarixiy an’ana uchun; u umumiy amerikalik fonemadan farqli bir tovushni anglatmaydi, garchi RP unlisi amerikalikiga qaraganda biroz kamroq ochilgan deb ta’riflanishi mumkin. [50]
• Unli uchun ishlatiladigan turli xil yozuvlar
• ECHKI RP va General American-da ( / əʊ / va / oʊ / ) ushbu tovushning eng keng tarqalgan fonetik tushunchalaridagi farqni aks ettiradi.
• RP jadvalida berilgan triftonlar odatda ikkita fonemaning ketma-ketligi (diftong plyus) sifatida qaraladi / ə / ); ammo, RPda ushbu ketma-ketliklar tez-tez uchraydi tekislash bitta diftonglarga yoki hatto monofontlarga.
• Bu erda ba’zi bir avstraliyalik unlilar uchun ishlatiladigan turli xil yozuvlar avstraliyadagi ushbu unlilarning fonetik amalga oshirilishini aks ettiradi: markaziy [ʉː] dan ko’ra [uː] yilda
• G’OZ , yanada yopiq [e] dan ko’ra [ɛ] yilda
• KIYIM , yaqin o’rtada [oː] an’anaviy RP-lardan ko’ra [ɔː] yilda
• O’YLANGAN , ochiq o’rtada [ɔ] an’anaviy RP-lardan ko’ra [ɒ] yilda
• KO’P , ochuvchi [ɐ] bir oz yaqinroq emas [ʌ] yilda
• STRUT , old tomondan [ɐː] dan ko’ra [ɑː] yilda
• SOKIN va
• BOSHLASH va diftonglarning ko’pchiligining biroz farqli talaffuzlari. E’tibor bering, markaziy [ʉː] yilda
• G’OZ , yaqin o’rtada [oː] yilda
• O’YLANGAN , o’rtada ochiq [ɔ] yilda
• KO’P va yaqinda ochiq [ɐ] yilda
• STRUT zamonaviy RP-da standart realizatsiya va bu unlilarda zamonaviy RP va Avstraliya ingliz tillari o’rtasidagi farq talaffuzda emas, balki faqat transkripsiyada yotadi. [51][41][52]
• Ikkalasi ham avstraliyalik / eː / va RP / ea / uzun monofontlar, ular orasidagi farq til balandligida: avstraliyalik / eː / o’rtada [eː ] mos keladigan RP unlisi esa o’rtada [ɛː ] . [53][52]
• Avstraliyada bor yomon–yigit Split, ning turli xil so’zlarida o’ziga xos qisqa va uzun variantlari bilan
• TRAP to’plam: uzun fonema / æː / kabi so’zlar bilan yomon qisqa bilan farq qiladi / æ / kabi so’zlar bilan yigit. (Xuddi shunday bo’linish Angliyaning janubidagi ba’zi ma’ruzachilarning aktsentlarida uchraydi.)
• Unli / ʊə / ko’pincha avstraliyaliklarning tavsiflaridan chiqarib tashlanadi, chunki ko’pchilik ma’ruzachilar uchun u uzoq monofontga bo’lingan / oː / (masalan, kambag’al, aniq) yoki ketma-ketligi / ʉːə / (masalan, davolash, jozibasi). [54]

Ta’kidlash kerak bo’lgan boshqa fikrlar:

• Unli / æ / yanada ochiq (yaqinlashmoqda) talaffuz qilinmoqda [a] ) ko’plab zamonaviy RP karnaylari tomonidan. Ammo Amerika nutqida uning yanada yopiq, kuchliroq va hattoki diffongiyaga aylanish tendentsiyasi mavjud (shunga o’xshash narsaga) [ea] ), ayniqsa ba’zi bir muhitlarda, masalan, a burun undoshi. [55] Ba’zi amerikalik aksanlar, masalan Nyu-York shahri, Filadelfiya va Baltimor, o’rtasida marginal fonemik farqni ko’rsating / æ / va / ea / , garchi ikkalasi asosan o’zaro eksklyuziv muhitda uchraydi. Qarang / æ / ko’tarish.
• So’zlarning katta qismi (
• VANNA guruh) bor / æ / umumiy Amerikada, ammo / ɑː / RPda. Talaffuz orasida o’zgarib turadi / æ / va / ɐː / Avstraliyada, ma’ruzachilar bilan Janubiy Avstraliya foydalanish / ɐː / boshqa mintaqalardan kelgan ma’ruzachilarga qaraganda kengroq.
• Umuman Amerika va Kanadada (ular mavjud rhotic urg’ulari, qayerda / r / unlidan oldin kelmaydigan holatlarda talaffuz qilinadi), unlilarning ko’pi bo’lishi mumkin r rangli quyidagilarni amalga oshirish yo’li bilan / r / . Bu ko’pincha fonetik usulda retrofleksiya qo’shilgan unli belgi yordamida yoziladi diakritik [ ˞ ] ; shunday qilib belgi [ɚ] r-rang uchun yaratilgan schwa kabi (ba’zan shvar deb ham ataladi)
• LETTER va unlisi
• BOSHLASH qilish uchun o’zgartirilishi mumkin [ɑ˞] shunday qilib so’z boshlang ko’chirilishi mumkin [stɑ˞t] . Shu bilan bir qatorda
• BOSHLASH unli yozilishi mumkin [stɑɚt] r-rangli offglide-ni ko’rsatish uchun. Unlisi
• Hamshira odatda ushbu lahjalarda har doim r rangda bo’ladi va bu yozilishi mumkin [ɚ] (yoki hece tarzida) [ɹ̩] ).
• Zamonaviy RP va boshqa shevalarda, dan ko’p so’zlar
• DAVOLASH guruhi bilan so’zlovchilar soni tobora ko’payib bormoqda
• SHIMOLIY unli (shunday qilib) aniq kabi talaffuz qilinadi qirg’oq). Shuningdek, RP unlisi / ea / monofontifikatsiya qilinishi mumkin [ɛː] . [56]
• Unlilar
• QO’YING va
• G’OZ odatda yaqinlashib kelayotgan tor diftonglar sifatida talaffuz qilinadi [ɪi] va [yu] , RPda. RP-ga yaqin ma’ruzachilar, ayniqsa, turdagi diftongizatsiyaga ega bo’lishi mumkin [əi] va [əu ~ əʉ] navbati bilan. Umumiy Amerikada talaffuz monofont va diftong o’rtasida farq qiladi. [40]

Unli allofonlar

Bu erda ba’zi muhim holatlar keltirilgan allofoniya standart ingliz lahjalarida uchraydigan unlilar.

• Ovozsizlar tomonidan hece qo’shilganda unlilar qisqartiriladi (fortis ) undosh. [57] Bu sifatida tanilgan pre-fortis qirqish. Shunday qilib, quyidagi so’z juftlarida birinchi element qisqartirilgan, ikkinchisi esa normal uzunlikdagi unliga ega: ‘o’ng’ / raɪt / – “haydash” / raɪd / ; “yuz” / feɪs / – “faza” / feɪz / ; “maslahat” / advaɪs / – “maslahat” / advaɪz / .
• Ingliz tilining ko’plab aksanlarida vaqt unli tovushlar buzish oldin / l / , natijada kabi talaffuzlarga olib keladi [pʰiəɫ] uchun tozalash, [pʰuəɫ] uchun basseyn, [pʰeɫ] uchun paqirva [pʰoəɫ] uchun qutb. [iqtibos kerak ]
• RPda unli / əʊ / kabi orqaga talaffuz qilinishi mumkin [ɒʊ] , hece-final oldidan / l / , kabi maqsad. Avstraliya ingliz tilida unli / əʉ / shunga o’xshash tarzda qo’llab-quvvatlanadi [ɔʊ] oldin / l / . Shunga o’xshash hodisa sodir bo’lishi mumkin Janubiy Amerika ingliz tili. [iqtibos kerak ]
• Unli / ə / tez-tez talaffuz qilinadi [ɐ] ochiq hecelerde. [58]
• The
• NARX va
• Og’iz diftonglar a dan keyin kamroq ochilgan boshlang’ich nuqtasi bilan talaffuz qilinishi mumkin ovozsiz undosh; [59] bu asosan Kanada nutqining o’ziga xos xususiyati (Kanada tarbiyasi ), ammo Qo’shma Shtatlarning ayrim qismlarida ham mavjud. [60] Shunday qilib yozuvchi dan ajralib turishi mumkin chavandoz hatto qachon ham chayqalish sabablarini keltirib chiqaradi / t / va / d / bir xil talaffuz qilinishi.

Stresssiz heceler

Qo’shimcha ma’lumotlar: Ingliz tilidagi stress va unlilarni kamaytirish

Stresssiz heceler ingliz tilida deyarli har qanday unli bo’lishi mumkin, ammo amalda stressli va stresssiz hecalardagi unlilar fonemalarning turli xil zaxiralaridan foydalanishga moyil. Xususan, uzun unlilar urg’usiz bo’g’inlarga qaraganda urg’usiz hecalarda kamroq qo’llaniladi. Bundan tashqari, ma’lum tovushlar mavjud, ular bilan tavsiflanadi markaziy pozitsiya va zaiflik – bu ko’pincha stresssiz hecelerin yadrosi sifatida topiladi. Bunga quyidagilar kiradi:

• schwa, [ə] , kabi
• KOMMA va (noaniq lahjalarda)
• LETTER (
• KOMMA –
• XAT birlashish ); kabi ko’plab boshqa lavozimlarda ajang, fotografik, paddockva hokazo. Ushbu tovush asosan faqat stresssiz hecalar bilan cheklangan. Bu erda keltirilgan yondashuvda u fonema sifatida aniqlanadi / ə / , garchi boshqa tahlillarda schva uchun alohida fonema mavjud emas va uni stressning eng past darajasi bo’lgan hecelerdeki boshqa unlilarning kamayishi yoki zararsizlantirilishi deb hisoblaydi.
• r rangli shva, [ɚ] , kabi
• LETTER umumiy Amerika va ba’zi boshqa rhotik lahjalarda, ularni asosiy ketma-ketlikda aniqlash mumkin / er / .
• hecalı undoshlar: [l̩] kabi bottle, [n̩] kabi dumbakuni, [m̩] kabi ritmlarm. Ular fonematik tarzda oddiy undosh sifatida yoki schva, keyin esa undosh sifatida qo’shilishi mumkin; masalan tugmasi sifatida ifodalanishi mumkin / ˈBʌtn̩ / yoki / Ʌbʌten / (yuqoriga qarang Undoshlar ).
• [ɨ̞] , kabi roses va makmenng. Buni fonema bilan aniqlash mumkin / ɪ / garchi stresssiz hecalarda u ko’proq markaziy talaffuz qilinishi mumkin va ba’zi ma’ruzachilar uchun (xususan, Avstraliya va Yangi Zelandiyada va ba’zi amerikalik ingliz tillarida) u birlashtirilgan / ə / ushbu hecelerde (zaif unlilarning birlashishi ). Farqni saqlab qolgan ma’ruzachilar orasida ko’p holatlar mavjud erkin o’zgarish o’rtasida / ɪ / va / ə / ning ikkinchi bo’g’inida bo’lgani kabi topilgan typmenkal. (The OED yaqinda bunday holatlarni ko’rsatish uchun ⟨ᵻ⟩ belgisini qabul qildi.)
• [ʉ̞] , kabi argsizment, tokun, shunga o’xshash mulohazalar holatlardagidek qo’llaniladi [ɨ̞] . (Ba’zan The belgisi, bu holatlarda xuddi to ga o’xshash tarzda ishlatiladi.) Ba’zi ma’ruzachilarda dumaloq schwa ham bo’lishi mumkin, [ɵ̞] kabi so’zlarda ishlatiladi tashlab qo’yish [ɵ̞ˈmɪʃən] . [61]
• [men] , kabi baxtliy, kofee, ko’plab lahjalarda (boshqalari bor [ɪ] bu holatda). [62] Buning fonematik holati [men] o’rnatish oson emas. Ba’zi mualliflar uni fonematik ravishda yaqin unli bo’lmagan unli tovush bilan mos keladi deb hisoblashadi
• KIT na u
• QO’YING ; asosan bu unli tovushlar orasidagi qarama-qarshilik neytrallashgan sharoitda sodir bo’ladi, [63][64][65] degan ma’noni anglatadi arxifonema, yozilishi mumkin / men / . Ko’pgina ma’ruzachilar, shunga o’xshash so’zlarning juftligida farq qiladi o’rganilgan va tirnoqli yoki Taksilar va soliqlar; kontrast bo’lishi mumkin [men] va boshqalar [ɪ] , [ɪ] va boshqalar [ə] yoki [men] va boshqalar [ə] , shuning uchun ba’zi mualliflar bu baxtli– unli fonematik ravishda yoki unli bilan aniqlanishi kerak
• KIT yoki bu
• QO’YING , karnayga qarab. [66] Shuningdek qarang baxtli– tortish.
• [u] , kabi inflsizence, to har biri. Bu orqaga yumaloq hamkasb [men] yuqorida tavsiflangan; uning fonematik holati u erda keltirilgan asarlarda ko’rib chiqiladi.

Leksik stress

Asosiy maqola: Ingliz tilidagi stress va unlilarni kamaytirish

Leksik stress ingliz tilida fonemik. Masalan, ism yildaburish va fe’l yildaburish stressni birinchi bo’g’inga, ikkinchisiga ikkinchi bo’g’inga joylashishi bilan ajralib turadi. (Qarang boshlang’ich-stressdan kelib chiqqan ism.) Ingliz tilidagi stressli hecalar stresssiz hecalarga qaraganda balandroq, shuningdek uzunroq va balandligi balandroq. An’anaviy yondashuvlarda, bir nechta ingliz tilidagi bir nechta so’zlardan iborat hece, har bir bo’g’inga uchta stress darajasidan biri berilgan: birlamchi, ikkilamchi yoki stresssiz. Odatda, har bir bunday so’zda asosiy urg’u bilan bitta hece bo’ladi, ehtimol ikkilamchi stressga ega bo’lgan bir hece, qolgan qismi esa stresssiz. Masalan, so’z amazing ikkinchi bo’g’inda asosiy stressga ega, birinchi va uchinchi bo’g’inlar esa stresssiz, so’z esa yokiganization to’rtinchi bo’g’inda asosiy, ikkinchi darajali stressda, ikkinchi, uchinchi va beshinchi stresssiz. Bu ko’pincha. Yordamida talaffuz tugmalarida ko’rsatiladi IPA asosiy va ikkilamchi stress uchun belgilar (ular mos ravishda ˈ va ˈ), ular qo’llaniladigan bo’g’inlardan oldin joylashtirilgan. Shuning uchun hozir berilgan ikki so’z ifodalanishi mumkin (ichida RP ) kabi / əˈmeɪzɪŋ / va / ˌƆːɡanaɪˈzeɪʃən / . Ba’zi tahlilchilar qo’shimcha stress darajasini aniqlaydilar (uchinchi darajali stress). Bu, odatda, ikkinchi darajali stressga qaraganda kamroq kuch bilan talaffuz qilinadigan hecalarga taalluqlidir, ammo shunga qaramay, “to’liq” yoki “kamaytirilmagan” unlini o’z ichiga oladi (qisqartirilgan deb hisoblanadigan unlilar Ingliz tili fonologiyasi § Urg’usiz hecalar yuqorida). Shuning uchun ning uchinchi bo’g’ini tashkilot, bilan talaffuz qilinsa / aɪ / yuqorida ko’rsatilganidek (qisqartirilgandan ko’ra / ɪ / yoki / ə / ), uchinchi darajali stress deb aytish mumkin. (Ikkilamchi va uchinchi darajadagi stressni aniq identifikatsiyalash tahlillar o’rtasida farq qiladi; lug’atlarda odatda uchinchi darajali stress ko’rsatilmaydi, ammo ba’zilari barcha bo’g’inlarni kamaytirilmagan unlilar bilan kamida ikkilamchi stressga ega deb belgilashga yondashgan.) Shunday qilib, ba’zi tahlillarda leksik stress tushunchasi unli tovushlarni qisqartirish bilan ziddiyatli bo’lishi mumkin. Ushbu ikkalasini ajratishga urinish yondashuvi tomonidan ta’minlanadi Piter Ladefoged, kim ingliz tilini faqat bitta darajadagi stress bilan ta’riflash mumkin, deb ta’kidlaydi stresssiz heceler uchun fonematik jihatdan ajralib turadi unlilarni kamaytirish. [70] [71] Ushbu yondashuvda birlamchi va ikkilamchi stressni ajratish fonemik xususiyat emas, balki fonetik yoki prosodik detal sifatida qaraladi – birlamchi stress stressga tushadigan “tonik” stressning misoli sifatida qaraladi. final a-ning ta’kidlangan hecesi prosodik birlik. Ushbu tahlil haqida batafsil ma’lumot uchun qarang Ingliz tilidagi stress va unlilarni kamaytirish. Stressni prosodik xususiyat sifatida (so’zlar ichida alohida so’zlarni ta’kidlash), qarang § Prosodik stress quyida.

Fonotaktika

Fonotaktika tillarda paydo bo’ladigan fonemalar ketma-ketligini va ular hosil bo’ladigan tovush tuzilmalarini o’rganishdir. Ushbu tadqiqotda odatda undoshlarni C harfi bilan, unlilarni V harfi bilan ifodalash odatiy holdir, shuning uchun “be” kabi bo’g’in CV tuzilishiga ega deb ta’riflanadi. The IPA hecalar orasidagi bo’linishni ko’rsatish uchun ishlatiladigan belgi nuqta [.] . Silllabifikatsiya – bu uzluksiz nutqni diskret hecalarga ajratish jarayoni, bu erda hece bo’linishining joylashuvi har doim ham osonlikcha qaror topavermaydi. Dunyoning aksariyat tillari shevalanadi CVCV va CVCCV kabi ketma-ketliklar /CV.CV/ va /CVC.CV/ yoki /CV.CCV/ , quyidagi undoshlarni o’z ichiga olgan hecaning boshlanishi vazifasini bajaruvchi undoshlar bilan. Bir qarashga ko’ra, ingliz tili bu borada odatiy emas, chunki ta’kidlangan hecalar quyidagi undoshlarni jalb qiladi, shuning uchun VCVCV va VCVCCV kabi heceleyiniz /ˈCVC.V/ va /ˈCVCC.V/ , undosh klaster ekan CC mumkin bo’g’in koda; bunga qo’chimcha, / r / ikkala bo’g’in stresssiz bo’lsa ham imtiyozli ravishda oldingi unli bilan hece qiladi, shunday qilib CVrV kabi sodir bo’ladi /CVr.V/ . Bu ishlatilgan tahlil Longman talaffuzi lug’ati. [72] Biroq, ushbu fikr keyingi bobda tushuntirilgani kabi keng qabul qilinmaydi.

Bo’g’im tuzilishi

The hece ingliz tilidagi tuzilish (C) 3 V (C) 5 , yaqin maksimal misol bilan kuchli tomonlari ( / strɛŋkθs / , garchi uni talaffuz qilish mumkin bo’lsa ham / strɛŋθs / ). [B] Fonetik nuqtai nazardan, hece tuzilmalarini tahlil qilish juda murakkab vazifa: artikulyatsiya ustma-ust tushishining keng tarqalganligi sababli ingliz tilida so’zlashuvchilar kamdan-kam hollarda ba’zi bir undoshlarni ovozli klasterlarda ovozli ravishda chiqaradilar. [73] Ushbu koartikulyatsiya artikulyatsiya imo-ishoralariga olib kelishi mumkin, ular o’chirish yoki to’liq assimilyatsiya kabi ko’rinadi. Masalan, yuz funt kabi ko’rinishi mumkin [hʌndɹɪb paʊndz] va orqaga sakradi (sekin nutqda, [dʒʌmptbæk] ) kabi ko’rinishi mumkin [dʒʌmpbæk] , ammo rentgen [74] va elektropalatografik [75] [76] [77] tadqiqotlar shuni ko’rsatadiki, eshitilmaydigan va ehtimol zaiflashgan aloqalar yoki til imo-ishoralari hali ham amalga oshirilishi mumkin. Shunday qilib, ikkinchi / d / yilda yuz funt lab artikulyatsiya joyiga to’liq singib ketmaydi, aksincha lab ishorasi alveolyar bilan birgalikda sodir bo’ladi; “yo’qolgan” [t] yilda orqaga sakradi eshitilmasa ham, hali ham ifoda etilishi mumkin. Bo’g’inlarga bo’lish qiyin soha bo’lib, turli xil nazariyalar taklif qilingan. Keng tarqalgan yondashuv bu maksimal boshlanish printsipi: [78] bunda ma’lum bir cheklovlarga rioya qilingan holda, unlilar orasidagi har qanday undoshlar quyidagi bo’g’inga tayinlanishi kerakligi aytilgan. Shunday qilib so’z ketish bo’linishi kerak /ˈLiː.vɪŋ/ dan ko’ra * /ˈLiːv.ɪŋ/ va shoshilinch bu /ˈHeɪ.sti/ dan ko’ra * /ˈHeɪs.ti/ yoki * /ˈHest.i/ . Ammo, agar bunday bo’linish ingliz tilida ruxsat etilmagan boshlang’ich klasterga olib kelsa, bo’linish buni hurmat qilishi kerak. Shunday qilib, agar so’z qo’shimcha bo’lindi * /ˈƐ.kstrə/ Natijada ikkinchi bo’g’inning boshlanishi bo’ladi / kstr / , dastlab ingliz tilida uchramaydigan klaster. Bo’lim /ˈƐk.strə/ shuning uchun afzallik beriladi. Agar quyidagi bo’g’inga undosh yoki undoshlarni berish oldingi bo’g’inning qisqartirilmagan qisqa unli bilan tugashiga olib keladigan bo’lsa, bunga yo’l qo’yilmaydi. Shunday qilib so’z vergul (RPda) bo’linishi kerak /ˈKɒm.ə/ emas * /ˈKɒ.ma/ , garchi oxirgi bo’linish quyidagi bo’g’inga maksimal boshlanishni beradi. Ba’zi hollarda, hech qanday echim to’liq qoniqtirmaydi: masalan, ingliz tilida (RP) so’z shoshiling bo’linishi mumkin edi /ˈHʌ.ri/ yoki /ˈH.r.i/ , ammo birinchisi hece-final bilan tahlilga olib keladi / ʌ / (bu sodir bo’lmaydi deb hisoblanadi), ikkinchisi esa hece finaliga olib keladi / r / (bu talaffuzda bo’lmaydi deyilgan). Ba’zi fonologlar o’rtadagi undosh har ikkala bo’g’inga tegishli bo’lgan va quyidagicha ta’riflanadigan murosaga asoslangan tahlilni taklif qilishdi. ikkilamchi. [79] [80] Shu tarzda tahlil qilishni taklif qilish mumkin shoshiling hecalardan iborat / soat / va / ri / , medial / r / ambisyllabic. Agar bo’linish so’z chegarasi yoki qo’shma so’z elementlari orasidagi chegara bilan mos keladigan bo’lsa, lug’atlarda so’zlarni qarshi intuitiv tarzda ajratadigan tarzda maksimal boshlanish tamoyilini talab qilish odatiy hol emas; shunday qilib so’z apparat bo’lingan bo’lar edi /ˈHɑː.dwee/ M.O.P. tomonidan, lekin lug’atlar bo’linishni afzal ko’radi /ˈH.d.wee/ . [81] [82] [83] Tomonidan ishlatiladigan yondashuvda Longman talaffuzi lug’ati, Uells [72] oldingi unli yanada ravshan bo’g’inning yadrosi bo’lganida undoshlar unliga ergashish o’rniga avvalgi bilan siljiydi, ta’kidlangan bo’g’inlar eng ko’zga ko’ringan, bo’g’inlar eng kichik va to’liq urg’usiz unlilar (“ikkinchi darajali stress”) oraliq bo’ladi. Leksik farqlar ham mavjud, ko’pincha, lekin faqat qo’shma so’zlar bilan emas. Masalan, ichida delfin va xudbin, Uells ta’kidlagan hece tugaydi deb ta’kidlaydi / lf / , lekin qisqichbaqalar, The / f / quyidagi heceye tegishli: /ˈDɒlf.ɪn, ˈself.ɪʃ / → [Ɒdɒlfɪ̈n, o’zimɪ̈ʃ] , lekin /ˈƩel.fɪʃ/ → [ˈƩelˑfɪʃ] , qaerda / l / biroz uzunroq va / ɪ / kamaytirilmaydi. Xuddi shunday, ichida oyoq bilaguzuk Uells ikkinchisi deb ta’kidlaydi / t / odatdagidek hece boshlanishida to’liq plosivdir, aksincha tost-rack ikkinchisi / t / ko’p shevalarda nashr etilmagan allofonga qisqartirilgan bo’lib, hece kodlarini oladi yoki hattoki tanlanadi: /ˈToʊ.stræp/, /ˈtoʊst.ræk/ → [ˈToˑʊstɹæp, ˈtoʊs (t̚) ɹæk] ; xuddi shunday nitrat /ˈNaɪ.treɪt/ → [ˈNaɪtɹ̥eɪt] ovozsiz bilan / r / (va ba’zi odamlar uchun buzilgan tr kabi daraxt), va boshqalar tungi narx /ˈNaɪt.reɪt/ → [ˈNaɪt̚ɹeɪt] ovozli bilan / r / . Bo’g’in chegaralarini belgilashga hecaning intilish aspiratsiyasi va (AQShda) kodaning chayqalishi kiradi. / t, d / (masxara qilish /ə.ˈtiːz/ → [əˈtʰiːz] va boshqalar bemalol /ət.ˈiːz/ → [əɾˈiːz] ) kabi epentetik to’xtaydi [t] heca kodlarida (panjara / Ensfens / → [Beshlik] lekin ichida /ɪn.ˈsaɪd/ → [ɪnˈsaɪd] ) va r rangidagi unlilar qachon / r / u boshlanganda koda va labializatsiya bilan bo’ladi (kalitlar dastasi /ˈKiː.rɪŋ/ → [ˈKiːɹʷɪŋ] lekin qo’rqish /ˈFiːr.ɪŋ/ → [ˈFɪəɹɪŋ] ).

Boshlanishi

Quyidagilar quyidagicha bo’lishi mumkin boshlanish:

Barcha yagona undosh fonemalar bundan mustasno / ŋ /
To’xtang, bundan tashqari taxminiy / j / : / pl / , / bl / , / kl / , / ul / , / pr / , / br / , / tr / , [a] / dr / , [a] / kr / , / yr / , / tw / , / dw / , / ww / , / kw / , / pw /	o’ynash, qon, toza, qo’lqop, sovrin, olib kel, daraxt, [a] orzu, [a] olomon, yashil, egizak, mitti, Guam, tezkor, puansans
Ovozsiz frikativ yoki / v / plyusdan boshqa taxminiy / j / : [b] / fl / , / sl / , / ul / , [c] / fr / , / yr / , / yr / , / soat / , [d] / sw / , / ww / , / vw /	qavat, uxlash, thlipsis, [c] do’stim, uchta, qisqichbaqalar, nima, [d] belanchak, to’siq, suv ombori
Undosh ortiqcha / j / (oldin / uː / yoki uning o’zgartirilgan / qisqartirilgan shakllari): [e] / pj / , / bj / , / tj / , [e] / dj / , [e] / kj / , / ɡj / , / mj / , / nj / , [e] / fj / , / vj / , / θj / , [e] / sj / , [e] / zj / , [e] / hj / , / lj / [e]	toza, chiroyli, kolba, [e] davomida, [e] yoqimli, janjal, musiqa, yangi, [e] oz, ko’rish, thew, [e] kostyum, [e] Zevs, [e] ulkan, noaniq [e]
/ s / ortiqcha ovozsiz to’xtash: [f] / sp / , / st / , / sk /	gapirish, to’xtash, mahorat
/ s / bundan tashqari burun / ŋ / : [f] / sm / , / sn /	tabassum, qor
/ s / ortiqcha ovozsiz fritiv: [c] / sf / , / sθ /	shar, stenik
/ s / ortiqcha ovozsiz to’xtash va taxminiy: [f] / spl / , / skl / , [c] / spr / , / str / , / skr / , / skw / , / smj / , / spj / , / stj / , [e] / skj /	split, sclera, spring, street, scream, square, smew, spew, student, [e] shish
/ s / plus voiceless fricative plus approximant: [c] /sfr/	sfragistika

Izohlar:

1. ^ abvd For certain speakers, / tr / va / dr / tend to affricate, so that daraxt resembles “chree”, and orzu qilish resembles “jream”. [84][85][86] This is sometimes transcribed as [tʃr] va [dʒr] respectively, but the pronunciation varies and may, for example, be closer to [tʂ] va [dʐ] [87] or with a fricative release similar in quality to the rhotic, i.e. [tɹ̝̊ɹ̥] , [dɹ̝ɹ] , yoki [tʂɻ] , [dʐɻ] .
2. ^ Some northern and insular Scottish dialects, particularly in Shetland, preserve onsets such as / ɡn / (kabi.) tishlamoq), / kn / (kabi.) taqillatish) va / wr / yoki / vr / (kabi.) yozmoq). [88][89]
3. ^ abvde Words beginning in unusual consonant clusters that originated in Latinized Greek loanwords tend to drop the first phoneme, as in * /bd/ , * / fθ / , * / ɡn / , * / soat / , * / kn / , * / ks / , * / kt / , * / kθ / , * / mn / , * /pn/ , * /ps/ , * / pt / , * /tm/ va * /θm/ bo’lib qoldi / d / (bdellium), / θ / (ftizi kasalligi), / n / (gnome), / r / (ritm), / n / (cnidoblast), / z / (ksilofon), / t / (ktenofor), / θ / (xtonik), / n / (mnemonik), / n / (zotiljam), / s / (psixologiya), / t / (pterodaktil), / m / (tmesis) va / m / (Astma). However, the onsets /sf/ , /sfr/ , / skl / , /sθ/ va /θl/ have remained intact.
4. ^ ab The onset /hw/ ga soddalashtirilgan / w / in the majority of dialects (vino–xirillash birlashish ).
5. ^ abvdefghmenjklmnopq Clusters ending / j / typically occur before / uː / va oldin DAVOLASH vowel (General American /ʊr/ , RP / ʊə / ); they may also come before the reduced form / ʊ / (kabi.) argument) yoki hatto / er / (in the American pronunciation of figuqayta). There is an ongoing sound change (yod tushirish ) by which / j / as the final consonant in a klaster yo’qolmoqda. In RP, words with /sj/ va / lj / can usually be pronounced with or without this sound, e.g. [suːt] yoki [sjuːt] . For some speakers of English, including some British speakers, the sound change is more advanced and so, for example, General American does not contain the onsets / tj / , / dj / , / nj / , /θj/ , /sj/ , /stj/ , /zj/ , yoki / lj / . Words that would otherwise begin in these onsets drop the / j / masalan: naycha ( /tub/ ), davomida ( /ˈdʊrɪŋ/ ), yangi ( / nu / ), Thule ( /ˈθuli/ ), kostyum ( /sut/ ), talaba ( /ˈstudənt/ ), Zevs ( /zus/ ), lurid ( /ˈlʊrɪd/ ). In some dialects, such Uels ingliz tili, / j / may occur in more combinations; masalan /tʃj/ (chaynash), /dʒj/ (Yahudiy), /ʃj/ (aniq) va /slj/ (o’ldirdi).
6. ^ abv Many clusters beginning with / ʃ / and paralleling native clusters beginning with / s / are found initially in German and Yiddish loanwords, such as /ʃl/ , / ʃp / , / ʃt / , /ʃm/ , /ʃn/ , /ʃpr/ , /ʃtr/ (in words such as schlep, spiel, shtick, schmuck, schnapps, Shprintzen’s, strudel). /ʃw/ is found initially in the Hebrew loanword schwa. Oldin / r / however, the native cluster is /ʃr/ . The opposite cluster / sr / is found in loanwords such as Shri-Lanka, but this can be nativized by changing it to /ʃr/ .

Other onsets

Certain English onsets appear only in contractions: e.g. /zbl/ (‘sblood) va /zw/ yoki /dzw/ (‘swounds yoki ‘dswounds). Ba’zilar, masalan /pʃ/ (pshaw), /fw/ (fwoosh), yoki / vr / (vroom), can occur in kesmalar. An archaic voiceless fricative plus nasal exists, /fn/ (fnese), as does an archaic /snj/ (snew).

Several additional onsets occur in qarz so’zlari (with varying degrees of anglicization) such as /bw/ (bwana), /mw/ (moira), /nw/ (noire), /tsw/ (zwitterion), /zw/ (zwieback), / dv / (Dvorak), / kv / (kvetch), /ʃv/ (schvartze), /tv/ (Tver), /tsv/ (Tsvikau), /kdʒ/ (Kjell), / kʃ / (Kshatriya), / tl / (Tlalok), / vl / (Vladimir), /zl/ (zlotiya), /tsk/ (Tsxinvali), /hm/ (Xmong) va /km/ (Kxmer).

Some clusters of this type can be converted to regular English phonotactics by simplifying the cluster: e.g. / (d) z / (dziggetai), /(h)r/ (Xrolf), /kr(w)/ (kruvasan), /(ŋ)w/ (Nguyen ), /(p)f/ (pfennig), /(f)θ/ (phthalic), / (t) s / (tsunami), /(ǃ)k/ (!kung) va /k(ǁ)/ (Xosa).

Others can be replaced by native clusters differing only in ovoz: /zb ~ sp/ (sbirro) va /zɡr ~ skr/ (sgraffito).

Yadro

The following can occur as the yadro:

• All vowel sounds
• / m / , / n / va / l / in certain situations (see below under word-level patterns )
• / r / yilda rhotic varieties of English (e.g. Umumiy Amerika ) in certain situations (see below under word-level patterns )

Koda

Most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with / s / , / z / , / ʃ / , / ʒ / , / tʃ / yoki / dʒ / bilan kengaytirilishi mumkin / s / yoki / z / vakili morfema -s/-z. Similarly, most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with / t / yoki / d / bilan kengaytirilishi mumkin / t / yoki / d / representing the morpheme -t/-d.

Wells (1990) argues that a variety of syllable codas are possible in English, even /ntr, ndr/ kabi so’zlar bilan kirish /ˈɛntr.ɪ/ va har xil /ˈsʌndr.ɪ/ , bilan / tr, dr / being treated as affricates along the lines of / tʃ, dʒ / . He argues that the traditional assumption that pre-vocalic consonants form a syllable with the following vowel is due to the influence of languages like French and Latin, where syllable structure is CVC.CVC regardless of stress placement. Disregarding such contentious cases, which do not occur at the ends of words, the following sequences can occur as the koda:

The single consonant phonemes except / soat / , / w / , / j / va, ichida non-rhotic varieties, / r /
Lateral approximant plus stop or affricate: /lp/ , /funt/ , / lt / , / ld / , /ltʃ/ , /ldʒ/ , / lk /	help, bulb, belt, hold, belch, indulge, milk
In rhotic varieties, / r / plus stop or affricate: /rp/ , /rb/ , /rt/ , / rd / , /rtʃ/ , /rdʒ/ , /rk/ , /rɡ/	harp, orb, fort, beard, arch, large, mark, morgue
Lateral approximant + fricative: / lf / , /lv/ , /lθ/ , / ls / , /lz/ , /lʃ/	golf, solve, wealth, else, bells, Welsh
In rhotic varieties, / r / + fricative: /rf/ , /rv/ , /rθ/ , / rs / , /rz/ , / rʃ /	dwarf, carve, north, force, Mars, marsh
Lateral approximant + nasal: /lm/ , /ln/	film, kiln
In rhotic varieties, / r / + nasal or lateral: /rm/ , / rn / , / rl /	arm, born, snarl
Nasal + gomorganik stop or affricate: / mp / , / nt / , / nd / , / ntʃ / , / ndʒ / , / ŋk /	jump, tent, end, lunch, lounge, pink
Nasal + fricative: /mf/ , /mθ/ , /nθ/ , / ns / , / nz / , /ŋθ/ in some varieties	triumph, warmth, month, prince, bronze, length
Voiceless fricative plus voiceless stop: / ft / , / sp / , / st / , / sk /	left, crisp, lost, ask
Two voiceless fricatives: / fθ /	beshinchi
Two voiceless stops: / pt / , / kt /	opt, act
Stop plus fricative: /pθ/ , /ps/ , / tθ / , / ts / , /dθ/ , / dz / , / ks /	depth, lapse, eighth, klutz, width, adze, box
Lateral approximant + two consonants: /lpt/ , /lps/ , /lfθ/ , /lts/ , /lst/ , /lkt/ , /lks/	sculpt, alps, twelfth, waltz, whilst, mulct, calx
In rhotic varieties, / r / + two consonants: /rmθ/ , /rpt/ , /rps/ , /rts/ , /rst/ , /rkt/	warmth, excerpt, corpse, quartz, horst, infarct
Nasal + homorganic stop + stop or fricative: /mpt/ , / mps / , /ndθ/ , /ŋkt/ , / son / , /ŋkθ/ in some varieties	prompt, glimpse, thousandth, distinct, jinx, length
Three obstruents: /ksθ/ , /kst/	sixth, next

For some speakers, a fricative before / θ / is elided so that these never appear phonetically: /fɪfθ/ bo’ladi [fɪθ] , /sɪksθ/ bo’ladi [sɪkθ] , [ JSSV? ] /twɛlfθ/ bo’ladi [twɛlθ] .

Syllable-level patterns

• Syllables may consist of a single vowel, meaning that onset and coda are not mandatory.
• The consonant / ŋ / does not occur in syllable-initial position.
• The consonant / soat / does not occur in syllable-final position.
• Onset clusters ending in / j / ortidan / uː / or its variants (see note 5 above).
• Long vowels and diphthongs are not found before / ŋ / , except for the mimetic words boing va oink, unassimilated foreign words such as Burmese aung and proper names such as Taung, and American-type pronunciations of words like kuchli (which have / ɔŋ / yoki / ɑŋ / ). Qisqa unlilar /ɛ, ʊ/ occur before / ŋ / only in assimilated non-native words such as ginseng va Sung (name of dynasty) or non-finally in some dialects in words like kuch va uzunlik
• / ʊ / is rare in syllable-initial position [C] (although in the northern half of England, [ʊ] uchun ishlatiladi / ʌ / and is common at the start of syllables).
• Stop + / w / oldin /uː, ʊ, ʌ, aʊ/ (all presently or historically / u (ː) / ) chiqarib tashlandi. [90]
• Ketma-ketliklari / s / + C₁ + V̆ + C₁, bu erda C₁ is a consonant other than / t / and V̆ is a short vowel, are virtually nonexistent. [90]

Word-level patterns

• / ə / does not occur in stressed syllables.
• / ʒ / does not occur in word-initial position in native English words, although it can occur syllable-initially as in hashamatli /lʌɡˈʒʊəriəs/ , and at the start of borrowed words such as janr.
• / m / , / n / , / l / va, ichida rhotic varieties, / r / can be the syllable nucleus (i.e. a hecalı undosh ) in an unstressed syllable following another consonant, especially / t / , / d / , / s / yoki / z / . Such syllables are often analyzed phonemically as having an underlying / ə / as the nucleus. See above under Undoshlar.
• Qisqa unlilar tekshirilgan unlilar, in that they cannot occur without a coda in a word-final stressed syllable. (This does not apply to / ə / , which does not occur in stressed syllables at all.)

Prosody

The prosodik features of English – stress, rhythm, and intonation – can be described as follows.

Prosodik stress

Prosodik stress is extra stress given to words or syllables when they appear in certain positions in an utterance, or when they receive special emphasis.

According to Ladefoged’s analysis (as referred to under Lexical stress § Notes above), English normally has prosodic stress on the final stressed syllable in an intonation unit. This is said to be the origin of the distinction traditionally made at the lexical level between primary and secondary stress: when a word like hayrat (traditionally transcribed as something like /ˌædmɪˈreɪʃən/ ) is spoken in isolation, or at the end of a sentence, the syllable ra (the final stressed syllable) is pronounced with greater force than the syllable reklama, although when the word is not pronounced with this final intonation there may be no difference between the levels of stress of these two syllables.

Prosodic stress can shift for various amaliy functions, such as focus or contrast. For instance, in the dialogue Is it brunch tomorrow? No, it’s kechki ovqat ertaga, the extra stress shifts from the last stressed syllable of the sentence, gamorqator, to the last stressed syllable of the emphasized word, dinner.

Grammatik funktsiya so’zlari are usually prosodically unstressed, although they can acquire stress when emphasized (as in Did you find the cat? Well, I found a mushuk). Many English function words have distinct strong and weak pronunciations; masalan, so’z a in the last example is pronounced / eɪ / , while the more common unstressed a talaffuz qilinadi / ə / . Qarang Ingliz tilidagi zaif va kuchli shakllar.

Ritm

English is claimed to be a stressga asoslangan til. That is, stressed syllables tend to appear with a more or less regular rhythm, while non-stressed syllables are shortened to accommodate this. Masalan, gapda One make of car is better than another, the syllables bitta, qilish, mashina, bett- va -noth- will be stressed and relatively long, while the other syllables will be considerably shorter. The theory of stress-timing predicts that each of the three unstressed syllables in between bett- va -noth- will be shorter than the syllable ning o’rtasida qilish va mashina, because three syllables must fit into the same amount of time as that available for ning. However, it should not be assumed that all varieties of English are stress-timed in this way. The English spoken in the West Indies, [91] Afrikada [92] and in India [93] are probably better characterized as hece-timed, though the lack of an agreed scientific test for categorizing an accent or language as stress-timed or syllable-timed may lead one to doubt the value of such a characterization. [94]

Intonatsiya

Qo’shimcha ma’lumotlar: Intonation (linguistics) § English

Phonological contrasts in intonation can be said to be found in three different and independent domains. In the work of Halliday [95] the following names are proposed:

• Tonallik for the distribution of continuous speech into tone groups.
• Toniklik for the placing of the principal accent on a particular syllable of a word, making it the tonic syllable. This is the domain also referred to as prosodic stress yoki jumla stressi.
• Ohang for the choice of pitch movement on the tonic syllable. (The use of the term ohang in this sense should not be confused with the ohang of tone languages, such as Chinese.)

These terms (“the Three Ts”) have been used in more recent work, [96] [97] though they have been criticized for being difficult to remember. [98] American systems such as TobI also identify contrasts involving boundaries between intonation phrases (Halliday’s tonallik), placement of pitch accent (toniklik), and choice of tone or tones associated with the pitch accent (ohang).

Example of phonological contrast involving placement of intonation unit boundaries (boundary marked by comma):

1. Those who ran quickly, escaped. (the only people who escaped were those who ran quickly)
2. Those who ran, quickly escaped. (the people who ran escaped quickly)

Example of phonological contrast involving placement of tonic syllable (marked by capital letters):

1. I have plans to LEAVE. (= Men ketishni rejalashtirmoqdaman)
2. Ketish uchun rejalarim bor. (= Menda bir nechta rasmlar bor)

Ohangni tanlashni o’z ichiga olgan fonologik kontrastning misoli (ingliz inglizchasi) (tushayotgan ohang, / = ko’tarilish tonusi)

1. U WIND tufayli rekordni buzmadi. (= u rekordni buzmadi, chunki shamol uni ushlab turdi)
2. / WIND tufayli u rekordni buzmadi. (= u rekordni yangilagan, ammo shamol tufayli emas)

Odatda ohangni o’z ichiga olgan kontrast mavjud savollar va ha / yo’q savollar, birinchisi tushayotgan ohangga ega (masalan: “Qaerga qo’ydingiz?”) va ikkinchisi ko’tarilayotgan ohang (masalan, “Ketasizmi / OUT?”), garchi spontan nutqni o’rganish natijasida ushbu qoidadan tez-tez istisnolar ko’rsatilsa. [99] Savollarni belgilash ma’lumot so’rashda ko’tarilayotgan ohanglar ko’tarilishi aytiladi (masalan: “Ular seshanba kuni kelishadi, YO’Q, ular shunday emasmi?”), tasdiqlashni so’raganlar esa pasayish ohangiga ega (masalan, “Ismingiz Jon, u emas.”).

Inglizcha talaffuz tarixi

Asosiy maqola: Ingliz tilining fonologik tarixi

Ingliz tilining talaffuz tizimi til tarixi davomida ko’plab o’zgarishlarga duch keldi qadimiy ingliz tilining fonologik tizimi, ga O’rta ingliz tilida, hozirgi kunga qadar. O’zgarish lahjalar har doim muhim bo’lgan. Ko’p so’zlarning oldingi talaffuzlari ularning imlosida aks ettirilgan Ingliz orfografiyasi O’rta ingliz davridan beri odatda fonologik o’zgarishlarga mos kelmaydi.

Ingliz tili undoshlari tizimi vaqt o’tishi bilan nisbatan barqaror bo’lib kelgan bo’lsa-da bir qator muhim o’zgarishlar sodir bo’lgan. Bunga misollarning yo’qolishi (ko’p lahjalarda) kiradi [ç] va [x] kabi so’zlarda hanuzgacha reflectedgh⟩ aks etgan tovushlar kecha va o’rgatganva fritivlarning ovozli va ovozsiz allofonlarini alohida fonemalarga ajratish (masalan, ikki xil ⟨th⟩ bilan ifodalangan fonemalar ). Bundan tashqari, ko’p bo’lgan undosh klasterlardagi o’zgarishlar, asosan qisqartirishlar, masalan, wr-⟨, ⟨kn-⟩ va shunga o’xshash harf birikmalarining odatdagi zamonaviy talaffuzlarini keltirib chiqaradiganlar. ⟨Wh-⟩.

The unlilarning rivojlanishi ancha murakkab bo’lgan. Eng muhim qator o’zgarishlardan biri bu Buyuk unli tovushlarni almashtirish, taxminan 14 asr oxirlarida boshlangan. Mana [iː] va [uː] kabi so’zlar bilan narx va og’iz diftonglashdi va boshqa uzun unlilar balandlashdi: [eː] bo’ldi [iː] (kabi.) uchrashmoq), [aː] bo’ldi [eː] va keyinroq [eɪ] (kabi.) ism), [oː] bo’ldi [uː] (kabi.) g’oz) va [ɔː] bo’ldi [oː] va keyinroq [oʊ] (hozir RP da [əʊ] ; kabi suyak). Ushbu siljishlar ko’plab yozilgan unli birikmalarning zamonaviy talaffuzi uchun javob beradi, shu jumladan a jim final ⟨e⟩.

Asrlar davomida unlilar tarkibidagi boshqa ko’plab o’zgarishlar yuz bergan (qarang. Haqidagi alohida maqolalarga qarang kam orqa, yuqori orqa va yuqori old unlilar, qisqa A va diftonglar ). Ushbu turli xil o’zgarishlar shuni anglatadiki, ilgari qofiyalangan ko’p so’zlar (va ularning imlosiga qarab qofiya bo’lishi kutilgan bo’lishi mumkin). [100] Masalan, ichida Shekspir Buyuk unli tovush almashinuvidan keyin, ovqat, yaxshi va qon barchasida unli bor edi [uː] , ammo zamonaviy talaffuzda yaxshi qisqartirildi [ʊ] , esa qon qisqartirilgan va pastga tushirilgan [ʌ] aksariyat aksentlarda. Boshqa hollarda, ilgari alohida bo’lgan so’zlar bir xil talaffuz qilinmoqda – bunday qo’shilishning misollari kiradi kutib olish – go’sht, pane-og’riq va toe-tow.

Shuningdek qarang

• Avstraliya ingliz fonologiyasi
• Ingliz orfografiyasi
• Yunoncha harflarning inglizcha talaffuzi
• Umumiy Amerika
• Ingliz tiliga xos bo’lmagan talaffuzlar
• Qadimgi ingliz fonologiyasi
• Yapon tilida so’zlashuvchilar tomonidan ingliz tilini anglash / r / va / l /
• Fonologik rivojlanish
• Ingliz unlilarining fonologik tarixi
• Ingliz tili undoshlarining fonologik tarixi
• ⟨Th⟩ ingliz tilining talaffuzi
• Talaffuz qilindi
• Ingliz tilining mintaqaviy aksentlari
• Ingliz tilidagi rhoticity
• T-glotalizatsiya
• R rangli unli
• Ingliz lahjalari uchun xalqaro fonetik alifbo jadvali
• Turkum: Ingliz fonologiyasida bo’linish va qo’shilish